Olfactory Disorders

Olfactory Disorders

Module Summary

Chemosensory disorders are encountered frequently in the practice of otolaryngology and have a significant impact on patient quality of life. True disturbances in taste are less common, but usually an alteration in the perception of flavors occurs because of dysfunction in the sense of smell. There is an extraordinary capacity of the olfactory system to regenerate, and although disorders in the sense of smell are relatively uncommon they can occur at every step of odorant transduction. It is important to recognize the most common forms of olfactory disturbances and be able to perform an adequate history and physical exam. Various testing protocols are available to assist physicians in the workup of these disorders. The physician should be able to make decisions in the intelligent use of several imaging tools available for diagnosis of specific pathology. Therapies are based on the diagnosed mechanism of dysfunction. In most cases of neural olfactory loss, therapies are few although olfactory training has provided some improvement. It is important for the physician to counsel the patient on the hazards of olfactory loss and recognize any psychological sequelae.

Module Learning Objectives 
  1. Identify the various causes of smell and taste disorders.
  2. List the various testing methods available for chemosensory disorders.
  3. Distinguish between trigeminal, gustatory, and olfactory sensation.
  4. Describe the basic anatomy of the olfactory system with its unique properties of transduction and regeneration.
  5. Express the limited treatment modalities for chemosensory disorders.
  6. Assess a patient with chemosensory complaints.
  7. Review the hazards of anosmia and be able to counsel the patient.

Embryology

Learning Objectives 
  1. Review the basic development of the olfactory and gustatory systems with special consideration to congenital causes of dysfunction. Give special attention to Kallmann syndrome and the embryonic migration of pituitary and olfactory precursors.
References 

Anatomy

Learning Objectives 

Review the basic histology and neural pathways of the olfactory and gustatory systems, with special emphasis on the location of the primary olfactory neurons and afferent signal pathways through the cribiform plate, including the following:

  1. Four basic cell types exist in olfactory epithelium: Primary neurons, supporting (sustentacular) cells, basal cells, and Bowman’s gland duct cells.
  2. Olfactory neurons have a unique regenerative capacity under the control of stem cells (basal cells).
  3. Taste papillae occur in three forms: Filliform, fungiform, and circumvallate.
References 
  1. Cullen MM, Leopold DA. Disorders of smell and taste. Med Clin North Am. 1999;83:57-74.
  2. Schwob JE, Jang W, Holbrook EH, et al. Stem and progenitor cells of the mammalion olfactory epithelium: Taking poietic license. J Comp Neurol. 2017;525(4):1034-1054.
  3. Leinwand SG, Chalasani SH. Olfactory networks: from sensation to perception. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2011;21(6):806-811.
  4. Doty RL. Gustation. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Cogn Sci. 2012;3(1):29-48.

Pathogenesis

Learning Objectives 

Describe the correct terminology and recognize the different classes of olfactory and gustatory dysfunction, such as:

  1. Anosmia, hyposmia, distortion of olfactory perception with odorant stimulus (troposmia or parosmia) or without odorant stimulus (phantosmia); ageusia, hypogeusia, dysgeusia, phantgeusia.
  2. Obstructive/conductive versus neural olfactory loss.
  3. Relationship of taste loss with burning mouth syndrome.
References 
  1. Cullen MM, Leopold DA. Disorders of smell and taste. Med Clin North Am. 1999;83:57-74.
  2. Snyder DJ, Bartoshuk LM. Oral sensory nerve damage: causes and consequences. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2016;17(2):149-58.

Incidence

Learning Objectives 
  1. Cite the estimated prevalence of chemosensory disorders and the most common etiologies.
  2. Recognize the importance of olfactory and gustatory dysfunction and the impact on quality of life.
References 
  1. Deems DA, Doty RL, Settle RG, et al. Smell and taste disorders, a study of 750 patients from the University of Pennsylvania Smell and Taste Center. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1991;117:519-28.
  2. Miwa T, Furukawa M, Tsukatani T, et al. Impact of olfactory impairment on quality of life and disability. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2001;127:497-503.
  3. Yang J, Pinto JM. Epidemiology of olfactory disorders. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2016;4(2):130-141.

Patient Evaluation

Learning Objectives 

Be able to conduct an appropriate evaluation of a patient with chemosensory complaints. Recognize the various available testing procedures.

  1. History: Onset, associated symptoms, asymmetry, food appreciation, malingering.
  2. Physical exam including nasal endoscopy.
  3. Chemosensory testing.
References 
  1. Holbrook EH, Leopold DA. Anosmia: diagnosis and management. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003;11(1):54-60.
  2. Cullen MM, Leopold DA. Disorders of smell and taste. Med Clin North Am. 1999;83:57-74.
  3. Davidson TM, Murphy C. Rapid clinical evaluation of anosmia. The alcohol sniff test. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1997;123:591-4.
  4. Yang J, Pinto JM. Epidemiology of olfactory disorders. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2016;4(2):130-141.
  5. Bartoshuk LM, Snyder DJ. Physiology of taste disorders. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2016;4(2):107-114.

Imaging

Learning Objectives 
  1. Explain the rationale for choice in imaging studies for olfactory disorders and prognostic meaning of olfactory bulb volume.
References 
  1. Busaba NY. Is imaging necessary in the evaluation of the patient with an isolated complaint of anosmia? Ear Nose Throat J. 2001;80:892-6.
  2. Hall JM, Powell J, Elbadawey MR. Radiological appearances in olfactory dysfunction: pictorial review. J Laryngol Otol. 2015;129(6):529-34.
  3. Hummel T, Urbig A, Huart C, et al. Volume of olfactory bulb and depth of olfactory sulcus in 378 consecutive patients with olfactory loss. J Neurol. 2015:262(4):1046-51.

Treatment

Learning Objectives 

See Medical Therapies, Surgical Therapies and Rehabilitation.

Medical Therapies

Learning Objectives 
  1. Discuss the potential therapeutic options and limitations in treatment of chemosensory dysfunction.
  2. Compute an approximate probability of resolution of the various causes of disorders, and realize the importance of counseling.
References 
  1. Cullen MM, Leopold DA. Disorders of smell and taste. Med Clin North Am. 1999;83:57-74.
  2. Rawal S, Hoffman HJ, Bainbridge KE, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of self-reported smell and taste alterations: results from the 2011-2012 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Chem Senses. 2016;41(1);69-76.
  3. Drews T, Hummel T. Treatment strategies for smell loss. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2016;4(2):122-129.
  4. Gudis DA, Soler ZM. Chronic rhinosinusitis-related smell loss: medical and surgical treatment efficacy. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2016;4(2):142-147.
  5. Kohli P, Naik AN, Farhood Z, et al. Olfactory outcomes after endoscopic sinus surgery for chronic rhinosinusitis: a meta-analysis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2016;155(6):936-948.
  6. Patel ZM. The evidence for olfactory training in treating patients for olfactory loss. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2017 Feb;25(1):43-46.
  7. Patel ZM, Wise SK, DelGaudio JM. Randomized Controlled Trial Demonstrating Cost-Effective Method of Olfactory Training in Clinical Practice: Essential Oils at Uncontrolled Concentration. Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology. 2017.

Surgical Therapies

Learning Objectives 
  1. Compare the benefits of sinus surgery with medical management in the treatment of chronic rhinosinusitis related smell loss.
References 

 

  1. Cullen MM, Leopold DA. Disorders of smell and taste. Med Clin North Am. 1999;83:57-74.
  2. Rawal S, Hoffman HJ, Bainbridge KE, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of self-reported smell and taste alterations: results from the 2011-2012 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Chem Senses. 2016;41(1);69-76.
  3. Drews T, Hummel T. Treatment strategies for smell loss. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2016;4(2):122-129.
  4. Gudis DA, Soler ZM. Chronic rhinosinusitis-related smell loss: medical and surgical treatment efficacy. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2016;4(2):142-147.
  5. Kohli P, Naik AN, Farhood Z, et al. Olfactory outcomes after endoscopic sinus surgery for chronic rhinosinusitis: a meta-analysis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2016;155(6):936-948.
  6. Patel ZM. The evidence for olfactory training in treating patients for olfactory loss. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2017 Feb;25(1):43-46.
  7. Patel ZM, Wise SK, DelGaudio JM. Randomized Controlled Trial Demonstrating Cost-Effective Method of Olfactory Training in Clinical Practice: Essential Oils at Uncontrolled Concentration. Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology. 2017.

Rehabilitation

Learning Objectives 
  1. Recognize olfactory training as a possible therapeutic option in some patients with olfactory loss.
References 
  1. Cullen MM, Leopold DA. Disorders of smell and taste. Med Clin North Am. 1999;83:57-74.
  2. Rawal S, Hoffman HJ, Bainbridge KE, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of self-reported smell and taste alterations: results from the 2011-2012 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Chem Senses. 2016;41(1);69-76.
  3. Drews T, Hummel T. Treatment strategies for smell loss. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2016;4(2):122-129.
  4. Gudis DA, Soler ZM. Chronic rhinosinusitis-related smell loss: medical and surgical treatment efficacy. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2016;4(2):142-147.
  5. Kohli P, Naik AN, Farhood Z, et al. Olfactory outcomes after endoscopic sinus surgery for chronic rhinosinusitis: a meta-analysis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2016;155(6):936-948.
  6. Patel ZM. The evidence for olfactory training in treating patients for olfactory loss. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2017 Feb;25(1):43-46.
  7. Patel ZM, Wise SK, DelGaudio JM. Randomized Controlled Trial Demonstrating Cost-Effective Method of Olfactory Training in Clinical Practice: Essential Oils at Uncontrolled Concentration. Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology. 2017.

Case Studies

  1. A 34-year-old female who loses her ability to smell and taste after an upper respiratory tract infection, but is able to smell the cleaning solution when cleaning the bathroom. She regains some function after several years.
    1. Probable post upper respiratory infection anosmia with decreased food flavor resulting from olfactory loss.
    2. Intact trigeminal system allows for detection of ammonia.
  2. A 13-year-old male without the ability to detect odors and delayed puberty.
    1. Congenital anosmia and Kallmann syndrome.
  3. A 35-year-old female sustained severe head injury after falling backwards while rollerblading. She initially complains of an absent sense of smell. Over several years she regains the ability to detect smells but is unable to correctly identify odors.
    1. Head trauma-induced olfactory dysfunction.
    2. Axon regrowth in altered pattern and resulting parosmia.

Review

Review Questions 
  1. What is the embryologic mechanistic explanation for the hormonal and olfactory dysfunction in children with Kallmann syndrome?
  2. Do the olfactory axons grow from the nose to the brain or from the brain to the nose?
  3. In adults, primary neurons of which of the following special sensory systems continually regenerate? A) vision, B) hearing, C) olfaction.
  4. What are the three most common reasons that people lose their sense of smell?
  5. What are the indications for imaging studies in the workup of chemosensory disorders?